A breakdown of spacecraft engineering and how it conquers space exploration
Have you ever thought, Wow, this is so far from where I live!, when you arrive in another state or even another country? Now think of a distance billions of times that. No vehicle, not even an airplane, can reach that distance in a reasonable amount of time.
On 4th of October, 1957 the Soviets launched the first spacecraft (1). It was an artificial satellite, a human-made object launched into space using rockets, which help break through the Earth’s atmosphere before detaching once the satellite reaches its position above the atmosphere. At first, spacecrafts were only used once, then deemed unworthy of being sent back into space again. This was due to the technological limitation at the time, which persisted from the1960s through the 1980s (1).
A famous point in space travel is called “re-entry,” where the rocket re-enters the Earth’s atmosphere. The Earth’s upper atmosphere, while relatively thin compared to the lower atmosphere, is still very dense in gas, resulting in a natural force that acts as a brake for the spacecraft. Consequently, the aerodynamic drag (the force of friction from another force when performing a motion) that occurs when re-entering the atmosphere causes a drastic increase in temperature of the spacecraft (1). Due to this, previous spacecraft, such as the Apollo 11, could only be used once because the high temperatures significantly damaged the spacecraft’s outer layer (2).
Image of a spacecraft preparing to re-enter the Earth’s uppermost atmosphere. (8)
Modern-day spacecraft, however, are reusable, and commonly referred to as space “shuttles”. This gives advantages to modern space exploration, since it isn’t necessary to re-design or re-construct spacecraft, which is infamous for being exorbitantly expensive. But how do these space shuttles achieve this? Reusable space shuttles, such as NASA’s Columbia, are engineered and optimized to sustain high temperatures with highly heat resistant materials. This includes carbon composite for the wings of the spacecraft and attachment of customized silicon tiles on the fuselage and body of the spacecraft (3). Space shuttles must also perform the special technique of turning sharply to kill off speed and fly into the Earth’s atmosphere at a 39-40 degree angle of attack. The degree at which the nose is positioned must be exact due to the higher concentration of heat resistance silicon tiles placed on the nose (4). This ultimately minimizes the impact of the aerodynamic drag that forms when re-entering the atmosphere of the Earth and allows the spacecraft to be used multiple times. (3)
NASA’s Columbia Space Shuttle launching with rocket boosters strapped on. (9)
Though re-entry is certainly a challenge, the first challenge for spacecraft is actually exiting Earth’s atmosphere. The most important components for achieving orbit or traveling to other planets are the propulsion systems and the thrusters (5). The propulsion system is arranged with rockets strapped on or attached to the spacecraft, and the spacecraft contains its own unique arrangement of liquid or solid rocket engines. The guidance system is used to keep the spacecraft in space and stable. It is equipped with a variety of sensors that employ radars and computers to manage speed and control spacecraft in flight. The thermal control regulates both the external and internal heat, providing crucial information needed during re-entry. Structural systems are the key elements that influence the spacecraft’s flight, composed of the fuselage components as well as internal and external parts. All of these elements share a common goal: to be lightweight and durable (5). The pressurization tank initiates the propulsion system and rocket engines by using a small amount of propellant, which is heated until it becomes a gas. This gas is then fed back into the liquid pressure tank, ensuring that the necessary pressure is maintained for the rocket engines to operate continuously (5). Avionics refers to the system designed to control the rocket’s flight path, with many computers in conjunction with the thermal system and the guidance system (6). Finally, the airlocks and antenna function as their name suggests. The airlocks maintain the pressurization in the cabin and determine where different air pressures can travel (7). The antennas facilitate communication with Earth and help detect objects in collaboration with the guidance system and avionics system.
All in all, these mechanical achievements of aerospace are credited to engineering. Without the brilliant engineering of the spacecraft, it would be difficult to imagine what exists beyond our Earth.
Works Cited:
- “A Brief History of Space Exploration | the Aerospace Corporation.” Aerospace Corporation, 19 Mar. 2024, aerospace.org/article/brief-history-space-exploration#:~:text=On%20Oct.,%2C%20Sputnik%201%2C%20into%20space. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.
- “Re-Entry Aircraft.” Nasa.gov, 2021, www.grc.nasa.gov/www/BGH/hihyper.html. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.
- “NASA – NSSDCA – Spacecraft – Details.” Nasa.gov, 2024, nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1969-059A#:~:text=Apollo%2011%20splashed%20down%20in,the%20recovery%20ship%20USS%20Hornet. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.
- McGrath, Jane. “How Do Spacecraft Re-Enter the Earth’s Atmosphere?” HowStuffWorks, HowStuffWorks, 27 Feb. 2024, science.howstuffworks.com/spacecraft-reentry.htm#:~:text=Descent%20through%20atmosphere%3A%20After%20it,descent. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.
- “Rocket Parts | Glenn Research Center | NASA.” Glenn Research Center | NASA, 20 Nov. 2023, www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/rocket-parts/. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.
- “Avionics: The “Brains” Command NASA’s Deep Space Rocket – NASA.” NASA, NASA, 24 July 2023, www.nasa.gov/reference/avionics-the-brains-command-nasas-deep-space-rocket/#:~:text=Avionics%20are%20the%20electrical%20systems,distributed%20throughout%20its%20various%20components. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.
- Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “air lock”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 14 Jun. 2018, https://www.britannica.com/technology/air-lock. Accessed 13 April 2024.
- Rainbow, Jason. “European Startup Gets $44 Million for Space Station Transportation Vehicles.” SpaceNews, 2 Feb. 2023, spacenews.com/european-startup-gets-44-million-for-space-station-transportation-vehicles/. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.
- Pittman, Travis. “7 Things to Know about the Space Shuttle on 40th Anniversary of 1st Launch.” 13newsnow.com, WVEC, 12 Apr. 2021, www.13newsnow.com/article/news/nation-world/space-shuttle-facts/507-7c1f05be-e7ee-4c19-886d-dc0a17aa51a6. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.